Man lives according to certain laws of nature. Being a biological species, it also has the ability to prolong its genus.

For this, there is a special system inside the body - the reproductive system. It is complexly designed to recreate an exact biological copy of an adult human. The human reproductive system has been studied for a very long time, since the conception of a child is a very delicate and complex process.

Sometimes we meet couples who would like to have children, but have not been able to get pregnant for several years. The reason for this is the violation of the functioning of this very human reproductive system. There are several reasons why women and men have problems with procreation. Let's try to figure them out.

What is reproduction?

The human reproductive system is a set of organs and processes in the body aimed at the reproduction of a biological species. This system, unlike other body systems, develops for quite a long time and differs by gender. It's no secret that women have one sex organs, men others. It is this difference that complements each other in the process of conception and the birth of a child.

Reproductive system of a woman

This system is complicated due to the fact that it is the woman who is destined to bear and feed the child in the first years of life. Therefore, the fair sex live in cycles so that all processes in the body proceed correctly. Here we are talking about the release of special hormones on different days of the cycle by different organs of the reproductive system.

The reproductive system of women is represented by the following organs:

• hypothalamus;
• ovaries;
• adenohypophysis;
• uterus;
• the fallopian tubes;
• vagina;
• milk glands.

All of them are aimed at supporting the process of formation and growth of another small life.

The hypothalamus determines the work of the entire cycle of a woman from the beginning of the formation of an egg until the end of its function.

The adenohypophysis is responsible for the production of hormones of the reproductive system.

The ovaries perform two main functions: ensuring ovulation from start to finish, and also cyclical release of the main female hormones.

The uterus is the main reproductive organ of a woman, since the child is formed in it, she is also responsible for the correct flow of menstruation and synthesizes receptors for the main female hormones.

That is why the fallopian tubes are named so, as they transport the fertilized egg to a safer and more convenient place for the embryo - the uterus.

The vagina acts as a pathway for sperm to reach the egg and is also a continuation of the birth canal at birth.

The mammary glands are needed in order to feed and nurture the child.

male reproductive system

In contrast to the complex female reproductive system, men have a slightly simpler system for reproducing their own kind. This is due to the fact that their task is only fertilization, but not the bearing and birth of children.

The male reproductive system is represented by the following organs:

• penis;
• the scrotum containing the testicles;
• prostate;
• seminal vesicles.

In addition, male sexual behavior is controlled by hormones. They are produced by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. A man is also not simple in the device of the reproductive system. It turns out that when a man ejaculates, about 300-400 million spermatozoa are released. This indicates a complex hormonal work occurring in the body of the stronger sex. Naturally, not all spermatozoa reach the egg, but those "lucky ones" who succeeded determine the sex of the unborn child.

The influence of negative factors on the reproductive system of women and men

Our body is arranged very correctly, and we must support its vital activity in order to provide them with basic functions. The reproductive system, like other systems in our body, is affected by negative factors. These are external and internal causes of failures in its work.

Ecology has an impact on the reproductive system. If the air in the region is bad, cases of infertility in couples or miscarriages will often be observed. Especially in summer time cities with industrial enterprises are covered with a gray haze - smog, which can consist of almost the entire table chemical elements Mendeleev. Accordingly, a person breathes this air, substances (formaldehydes, nitrogen, sulfur, mercury, metals) are absorbed into the blood. As a result, oxygen and other substances may simply not be enough to conceive a child, and also, due to poor ecology, changes may occur in the internal genital organs of a woman and a man.

It should be noted the great influence of alcohol on the reproductive system. We have heard many times about the danger alcoholic beverages, but people often think that they will not be affected by the consequences of a wrong lifestyle. Alcohol can lead to deformities of the child. Children whose mothers consumed alcoholic beverages during pregnancy will most likely have weak immunity, pathologies of internal organs, delayed psycho-speech development, and so on, may occur. Immediately, the consequences of a wrong lifestyle may not appear. The female reproductive system is more susceptible to the negative effects of alcohol. Since a man releases sperm with every sexual intercourse, alcohol does not linger for long in the genetic material, which is then passed on to the child. The egg cycle is at least 30 days. All these days, toxins from alcoholic beverages remain in it, exerting their effect on the body of a woman and a child.

The reproductive system can also be damaged sedentary image life. It has little effect on a woman (although overweight often causes miscarriage). But a man can be very seriously affected by constant sedentary work or unwillingness to exercise. We are talking about prostatitis, which we will discuss below, and a decrease in the speed of spermatozoa. The mobility of these cells is very important, they move towards the ovum like conquerors. If their movement is weak, not intense, then pregnancy will not occur.

Pathologies of the functioning of the reproductive system

The human reproductive system, as we have already learned, is subject to various negative influences environment and beyond. As a result of these influences, pathologies arise in the work of the organs of this system. We will talk about them.

Cervical erosion

Occurs when it loses its outer cells - the epithelium. There are two types of this disease: true erosion and false. The first occurs when the epithelium is desquamated. This process is influenced by various factors, in particular, pathological discharge from the cervical canal. Sometimes it is not desquamation, but the replacement of this epithelium, then the pathology will be characterized as false. Erosion of the cervix can occur as a result of ruptures during childbirth, with various manipulations, in particular abortion, and also with eversion of the mucous membrane. With this pathology, only the female reproductive system suffers.

Chlamydia

This pathology occurs when a sexually transmitted infection enters. It may be asymptomatic, but may be accompanied by severe pain and specific discharge after sexual intercourse. The disease is dangerous inflammation inside the pelvis, fallopian tubes, ovaries. This inflammation does not go away without a trace. If the disease is not treated in time, there may be constant pain, an ectopic pregnancy or infertility may develop.

Herpes

This disease is typical for both men and women. It can be transmitted sexually, and may occur due to other reasons: hypothermia, trauma to the skin, pathology of the functioning of the endocrine glands.

Genital herpes is characterized by sharp pains, itching, tingling. Then a spot appears on the genitals - the basis for rashes. These are several bubbles, which at first contain a clear liquid, and then purulent crusts or constantly wet erosion may occur. IN difficult cases the person may have chills, muscle pain, and weakness.

uterine fibroids in women

This disease also occurs due to infection or malfunction. Frequent abortions, curettage, poor ecology in the region, and heredity are also common. But you can't throw it all away external causes which do not depend on us. We must take care of our bodies to prevent such pathologies.

Myoma can manifest itself through pain in the lower abdomen, changes in the cycle of menstruation. With this disease, whole blood clots can be released, there can be a lot of it.

Candidiasis or thrush

This disease worries almost half of the entire population of women. To date, it is not completely known why some suffer from it more, while others do not. The main symptoms of thrush are:

• pain during urination;
• itching in the vaginal area;
• pain during intercourse;
• discharge, in appearance resembling cottage cheese;
• constant discomfort in the genital area.

Candidiasis is difficult to cure, so with all these symptoms you need to see a doctor. The main causes of thrush are: sexually transmitted infections, prolonged use of antibiotics, pregnancy, weak immunity, diabetes. Men also often have thrush.

The development of polycystic ovaries in women

This disease originates from disorders in the endocrine system. Polycystic ovaries can lead to infertility, so it needs to be treated immediately. The disease manifests itself through amenorrhea, frequent and thick hair growth, obesity. It is important to consult a doctor in time for advice, because you cannot prescribe adequate treatment for yourself.

Prostatitis as a way to male infertility

The impact on the reproductive system of men of various infections can lead to the fact that they become infertile. Therefore, men should take care of their lifestyle. It is important for them not to give themselves a slack and warm up physically. Common diseases of the reproductive system are complemented by purely male ones. One of the most common is prostatitis.

This disease occurs when inflammation appears in the prostate area. Sometimes the disease goes unnoticed, which causes more harm to the work of the male reproductive system. This occurs due to violations of the function of the genital organs and spermatogenesis. These pathological processes lead to a decrease in potency. Prostatitis can be complicated by vesiculitis, that is, an inflammatory process in the seminal vesicles. This insidious disease affects up to 80% of men, especially in adulthood when all processes in the body slow down.

The male reproductive system can suffer from bacterial and non-bacterial prostatitis. Quite often it becomes chronic. This condition is very difficult to treat, as the bacterium becomes resistant to drugs. Prostatitis is manifested by frequent and painful urge to urinate, pain may accompany sexual intercourse. This disease can lead to kidney disease. It is important to take preventive measures.

in men

Adenoma is a benign tumor in the region of the bladder neck. The disease is typical for older men - 50-60 years. It has several stages, the sooner it is recognized, the more you can warn yourself against complications.

This disease may not immediately make itself felt. The first symptom can be considered a minor violation of urination. This can manifest itself in a decrease in jet tension, a person may often want to go to the toilet at night, there are sensations that bladder not completely emptied. In addition, blood may appear in the urine and there may be loss of appetite, and the man is prone to constant fatigue.

All diseases of the reproductive system can be prevented by taking care of your health.

The reproductive organs are those organs that are responsible for the birth of a person. Through these organs, the process of fertilization and bearing a child, as well as his birth, is carried out. Human reproductive organs differ by gender. This is the so-called sexual dimorphism. The system of female reproductive organs is much more complex than male, since the most important function of carrying and giving birth to a baby falls on a woman.

The structure of the female reproductive organs

The organs of the female reproductive system have the following structure:

• external genital organs (pubis, large and small labia, clitoris, vestibule of the vagina, Bartholin's glands);
• internal genital organs (vagina, ovaries, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix).

The anatomy of the female reproductive organs is very complex and entirely dedicated to the function of childbearing.

Reproductive organs of a woman

The reproductive organs of a woman form:

Ultrasound of the reproductive organs

Ultrasound of the reproductive organs - the most important way diagnosis of various diseases associated with the sexual sphere. It is safe, painless, simple and requires a minimum of preparation. Ultrasound of the pelvic organs is prescribed for diagnostic purposes (including after an abortion and during pregnancy), as well as for performing some interventions that require visual control. Women can undergo ultrasound of the reproductive organs transvaginally or transabdominally. The first method is more convenient, since it does not require filling the bladder.

human reproduction

Human reproduction (human reproduction), a physiological function necessary for the preservation of man as a biological species. The process of reproduction in humans begins with conception (fertilization), i.e. from the moment of penetration of the male reproductive cell (sperm) into the female reproductive cell (egg, or ovum). The fusion of the nuclei of these two cells is the beginning of the formation of a new individual. The human fetus develops in a woman's uterus during pregnancy, which lasts 265–270 days. At the end of this period, the uterus begins to spontaneously rhythmically contract, the contractions become stronger and more frequent; the amniotic sac (fetal bladder) ruptures and, finally, a mature fetus is "expelled" through the vagina - a child is born. Soon the placenta (afterbirth) departs. The whole process, starting with contractions of the uterus and ending with the expulsion of the fetus and placenta, is called childbirth.

In more than 98% of cases, at conception, only one egg is fertilized, which leads to the development of one fetus. In 1.5% of cases, twins (twins) develop. About one in 7,500 pregnancies results in triplets.

Only biologically mature individuals have the ability to reproduce. During puberty (puberty), a physiological restructuring of the body occurs, manifested in physical and chemical changes that mark the onset of biological maturity. In a girl during this period, fat deposits around the pelvis and hips increase, the mammary glands grow and round, hair growth of the external genitalia and armpits develops. Shortly after the appearance of these, the so-called. secondary, sexual characteristics, the menstrual cycle is established.

In boys, in the process of puberty, the physique changes noticeably; the amount of fat on the abdomen and hips decreases, the shoulders become wider, the timbre of the voice decreases, hair appears on the body and face. Spermatogenesis (the formation of sperm) in boys begins somewhat later than menstruation in girls.

Reproductive system of women

reproductive organs. The female internal reproductive organs include the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.

The ovaries - two glandular organs weighing 2-3.5 g each - are located behind the uterus on both sides of it. In a newborn girl, each ovary contains an estimated 700,000 immature eggs. All of them are enclosed in small round transparent bags - follicles. The latter alternately ripen, increasing in size. The mature follicle, also called the graafian vesicle, ruptures to release the egg. This process is called ovulation. The egg then enters the fallopian tube. Usually, during the entire reproductive period of life, approximately 400 fertile eggs are released from the ovaries. Ovulation occurs monthly (around the middle of the menstrual cycle). The bursting follicle plunges into the thickness of the ovary, overgrows with scar connective tissue and turns into a temporary endocrine gland - the so-called. corpus luteum, which produces the hormone progesterone.

The fallopian tubes, like the ovaries, are paired formations. Each of them stretches from the ovary and connects to the uterus (from two different sides). The length of the pipes is approximately 8 cm; they are slightly bent. The lumen of the tubes passes into the uterine cavity. The walls of the tubes contain inner and outer layers of smooth muscle fibers, which are constantly contracting rhythmically, which provides undulating movements of the tubes. From the inside, the walls of the tubes are lined with a thin membrane containing ciliated (ciliated) cells. As soon as the egg enters the tube, these cells, along with muscle contractions of the walls, ensure its movement into the uterine cavity.

The uterus is a hollow muscular organ located in the pelvic region of the abdominal cavity. Its dimensions are approximately 8 cm. Pipes enter it from above, and from below its cavity communicates with the vagina. The main part of the uterus is called the body. The non-pregnant uterus has only a slit-like cavity. The lower part of the uterus, the cervix, about 2.5 cm long, protrudes into the vagina, where its cavity, called the cervical canal, opens. When a fertilized egg enters the uterus, it sinks into its wall, where it develops throughout pregnancy.

The vagina is a hollow cylindrical formation 7–9 cm long. It is connected to the cervix along its circumference and goes to the external genitalia. Its main functions are the outflow of menstrual blood to the outside, the reception of the male genital organ and male seed during copulation and providing a passage for the fetus to be born. In virgins, the external entrance to the vagina is partially closed by a crescent-shaped fold of tissue, the hymen. This fold usually leaves enough room for menstrual blood to drain; after the first copulation, the opening of the vagina expands.

Milk glands. Full (mature) milk in women usually appears approximately 4–5 days after birth. When a baby suckles, there is an additional powerful reflex stimulus for the glands to produce milk (lactation).

The menstrual cycle is established shortly after the onset of puberty under the influence of hormones produced by the endocrine glands. In the early stages of puberty, pituitary hormones initiate ovarian activity, triggering a complex of processes that take place in the female body from puberty to menopause, i.e. for approximately 35 years. The pituitary gland cyclically secretes three hormones that are involved in the process of reproduction. The first - follicle-stimulating hormone - determines the development and maturation of the follicle; the second - luteinizing hormone - stimulates the synthesis of sex hormones in the follicles and initiates ovulation; the third - prolactin - prepares the mammary glands for lactation.

Under the influence of the first two hormones, the follicle grows, its cells divide, and a large fluid-filled cavity is formed in it, in which the oocyte is located. The growth and activity of follicular cells are accompanied by their secretion of estrogens, or female sex hormones. These hormones can be found both in the follicular fluid and in the blood. The term estrogen comes from the Greek oistros (fury) and is used to refer to a group of compounds that can cause oestrus (oestrus) in animals. Estrogens are present not only in the human body, but also in other mammals.

Luteinizing hormone stimulates the rupture of the follicle and the release of the egg. After that, the cells of the follicle undergo significant changes, and a new structure develops from them - the corpus luteum. Under the action of luteinizing hormone, it, in turn, produces the hormone progesterone. Progesterone inhibits the secretory activity of the pituitary gland and changes the state of the mucous membrane (endometrium) of the uterus, preparing it to receive a fertilized egg, which must be introduced (implanted) into the uterine wall for subsequent development. As a result, the wall of the uterus thickens significantly, its mucosa, containing a lot of glycogen and rich in blood vessels, creates favorable conditions for the development of the embryo. The coordinated action of estrogens and progesterone ensures the formation of the environment necessary for the survival of the embryo and the preservation of pregnancy.

The pituitary gland stimulates the activity of the ovaries approximately every four weeks (ovulatory cycle). If fertilization does not occur, most of the mucous along with the blood is rejected and enters the vagina through the cervix. Such cyclical bleeding is called menstruation. For most women, bleeding occurs approximately every 27 to 30 days and lasts 3 to 5 days. The entire cycle ending with the shedding of the lining of the uterus is called the menstrual cycle. It is regularly repeated throughout the reproductive period of a woman's life. The first periods after puberty may be irregular, and in many cases they are not preceded by ovulation. Menstrual cycles without ovulation, often found in young girls, are called anovulatory.

Menstruation is not at all the release of "spoiled" blood. In fact, the discharge contains very small amounts of blood mixed with mucus and uterine lining tissue. The amount of blood lost during menstruation is different for different women, but on average does not exceed 5-8 tablespoons. Sometimes minor bleeding occurs in the middle of the cycle, which is often accompanied by mild abdominal pain, characteristic of ovulation. Such pains are called mittelschmerz (German "median pains"). Pain experienced during menstruation is called dysmenorrhea. Usually dysmenorrhea occurs at the very beginning of menstruation and lasts 1-2 days.

Pregnancy. The release of the egg from the follicle in most cases occurs approximately in the middle of the menstrual cycle, i.e. 10-15 days after the first day of the previous menstruation. Within 4 days, the egg moves through the fallopian tube. Conception, i.e. fertilization of the egg by the sperm takes place in the upper part of the tube. This is where the development of a fertilized egg begins. Then it gradually descends through the tube into the uterine cavity, where it is free for 3–4 days, and then it penetrates the uterine wall, and the embryo and structures such as the placenta, umbilical cord, etc. develop from it.

Pregnancy is accompanied by many physical and physiological changes in the body. Menstruation stops, the size and mass of the uterus increase sharply, the mammary glands swell, in which preparations for lactation are underway. During pregnancy, the volume of circulating blood exceeds the initial one by 50%, which significantly increases the work of the heart. In general, the period of pregnancy is a heavy physical load.

Pregnancy ends with the expulsion of the fetus through the vagina. After childbirth, after about 6 weeks, the size of the uterus returns to its original size.

Menopause. The term "menopause" is derived from the Greek words meno ("monthly") and pausis ("cessation"). Thus, menopause means the cessation of menstruation. The entire period of extinction of sexual functions, including menopause, is called menopause.

Menstruation also stops after the surgical removal of both ovaries, performed in certain diseases. Exposure of the ovaries to ionizing radiation can also lead to the cessation of their activity and menopause.

Approximately 90% of women stop menstruating between the ages of 45 and 50. This can happen abruptly or gradually over many months, when periods become irregular, the intervals between them increase, the bleeding periods themselves gradually shorten and the amount of blood lost decreases. Sometimes menopause occurs in women under the age of 40. Equally rare are women with regular menstruation at 55 years of age. Any bleeding from the vagina that occurs after menopause requires immediate medical attention.

Menopausal symptoms. During the period of cessation of menstruation or immediately before it, many women develop a complex set of symptoms that together make up the so-called. menopausal syndrome. It consists of various combinations of the following symptoms: "hot flashes" (sudden redness or sensation of heat in the neck and head), headaches, dizziness, irritability, mental instability and joint pain. Most women complain only of "hot flashes", which can occur several times a day and are usually more severe at night. Approximately 15% of women do not feel anything, noting only the cessation of menstruation, and maintain excellent health.

Many women misunderstand what to expect from menopause and menopause. They are worried about the possibility of loss of sexual attractiveness or the sudden cessation of sexual activity. Some are afraid of mental disorders or general withering. These fears are based predominantly on hearsay rather than medical facts.

Reproductive system of men

The function of reproduction in men is reduced to the production of a sufficient number of spermatozoa with normal mobility and the ability to fertilize mature eggs. The male reproductive organs include the testicles (testes) with their ducts, the penis, and an accessory organ, the prostate gland.

Testicles (testicles, testicles) - paired glands oval shape; each of them weighs 10–14 g and is suspended in the scrotum on the spermatic cord. The testicle consists of a large number of seminiferous tubules, which, merging, form the epididymis - the epididymis. This is an oblong body adjacent to the top of each testicle. The testicles secrete male sex hormones, androgens, and produce sperm containing male germ cells - spermatozoa.

Spermatozoa are small, very mobile cells, consisting of a head carrying a nucleus, a neck, a body, and a flagellum, or tail. They develop from special cells in thin convoluted seminiferous tubules. Maturing spermatozoa (the so-called spermatocytes) move from these tubules into larger ducts that flow into spiral tubules (efferent or excretory tubules). From them, spermatocytes enter the epididymis, where their transformation into spermatozoa is completed. The epididymis contains a duct that opens into the vas deferens of the testis, and that, connecting with the seminal vesicle, forms the ejaculatory (ejaculatory) duct of the prostate gland. At the moment of orgasm, spermatozoa, together with the fluid produced by the cells of the prostate gland, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and mucous glands, are ejected from the seminal vesicle into the ejaculatory duct and further into the urethra of the penis. Normally, the volume of the ejaculate (semen) is 2.5-3 ml, and each milliliter contains more than 100 million spermatozoa.

Fertilization. Once in the vagina, the spermatozoa, with the help of tail movements, and also due to the contraction of the walls of the vagina, move into the fallopian tubes in about 6 hours. The chaotic movement of millions of spermatozoa in the tubes creates the possibility of their contact with the egg, and if one of them penetrates it, the nuclei of the two cells merge and fertilization is completed.

Infertility

Infertility, or the inability to reproduce, can be due to many reasons. Only in rare cases is it due to the absence of eggs or sperm.

female infertility. A woman's ability to conceive is directly related to age, general condition health, the stage of the menstrual cycle, as well as with the psychological mood and lack of nervous tension. Physiological causes of infertility in women include the absence of ovulation, the unavailability of the uterine endometrium, infections of the genital tract, narrowing or obstruction of the fallopian tubes, and congenital anomalies of the reproductive organs. Other pathological conditions can lead to infertility if left untreated, including various chronic diseases, nutritional disorders, anemia, and endocrine disorders.

diagnostic tests. Finding out the cause of infertility requires a complete medical examination and diagnostic laboratory tests. The patency of the fallopian tubes is checked by blowing them. To assess the condition of the endometrium, a biopsy is performed (removal of a small piece of tissue) followed by microscopic examination. The function of the reproductive organs can be judged by the analysis of the level of hormones in the blood.

male infertility. If a semen sample contains more than 25% abnormal sperm, fertilization rarely occurs. Normally, 3 hours after ejaculation, about 80% of spermatozoa retain sufficient mobility, and after 24 hours, only a few of them show sluggish movements. Approximately 10% of men suffer from infertility due to insufficient sperm. Such men usually have one or more of the following defects: a small number of spermatozoa, a large number of their abnormal forms, a decrease or complete absence of spermatozoa motility, a small amount of ejaculate. The cause of infertility (sterility) may be inflammation of the testicles caused by mumps (mumps). If the testicles have not yet descended into the scrotum at the onset of puberty, the cells from which sperm are formed may be irreversibly damaged. The outflow of seminal fluid and the movement of spermatozoa is prevented by obstruction of the seminal vesicles. Finally, fertility (the ability to reproduce) may be reduced as a result of infectious diseases or endocrine disorders.

diagnostic tests. In semen samples, the total number of spermatozoa, the number of normal forms and their mobility, as well as the volume of ejaculate are determined. For microscopic examination of the testicular tissue and the condition of the cells of the tubules, a biopsy is performed. The secretion of hormones can be judged by determining their concentration in the urine.

Psychological (functional) infertility. Emotional factors also affect fertility. It is believed that the state of anxiety may be accompanied by a spasm of the tubes, which prevents the passage of the egg and sperm. Overcoming feelings of tension and anxiety in women in many cases creates the conditions for successful conception.

Treatment and research. Great progress has been made in the treatment of infertility. Modern methods of hormone therapy can stimulate spermatogenesis in men and ovulation in women. With the help of special instruments, it is possible to examine the pelvic organs for diagnostic purposes without surgical intervention, and new microsurgical methods make it possible to restore the patency of the pipes and ducts.

Fertilization in vitro (in vitro fertilization). An outstanding event in the field of infertility was the birth in 1978 of the first child that developed from an egg fertilized outside the mother's body, i.e. extracorporeally. This "test-tube" child was the daughter of Leslie and Gilbert Brown, born in Oldham (UK). Her birth completed years of research work by two British scientists, gynecologist P. Steptoe and physiologist R. Edwards. Due to the pathology of the fallopian tubes, the woman could not become pregnant for 9 years. To get around this obstacle, eggs taken from her ovary were placed in a test tube, where they were fertilized by adding her husband's sperm and then incubated under special conditions. When the fertilized eggs began to divide, one of them was transferred to the mother's uterus, where implantation took place and the natural development of the embryo continued. The baby born by caesarean section was normal in all respects. After that, in vitro fertilization (literally "in glass") became widespread. Currently, such assistance to infertile couples is provided in many clinics in different countries, and as a result, thousands of "test-tube" children have already appeared.

Freezing embryos. Recently, a modified method has been proposed, which has given rise to a number of ethical and legal problems: freezing of fertilized eggs for later use. This technique, developed mainly in Australia, allows a woman to avoid repeated egg retrieval procedures if the first implantation attempt fails. It also makes it possible to implant the embryo into the uterus at the right time in a woman's menstrual cycle. Freezing the embryo (at the very initial stages of development) with its subsequent thawing also makes it possible to achieve a successful pregnancy and childbirth.

Transfer of the egg. In the first half of the 1980s, another promising method of combating infertility was developed, called egg transfer, or in vivo fertilization - literally "in a living" (organism). This method involves the artificial insemination of a woman who has agreed to become a donor with the sperm of the future father. After a few days, the fertilized egg, which is a tiny fetus (embryo), is gently washed out of the donor's uterus and placed in the uterus of the expectant mother, who carries the fetus and gives birth. In January 1984, the first child was born in the United States, which developed after the transfer of the egg.

Egg transfer is a non-surgical procedure; it can be done in the doctor's office without anesthesia. This method can help women who do not produce eggs or have genetic disorders. It can also be used for blocked fallopian tubes, if the woman does not want to undergo repeated procedures, often required for in vitro fertilization. However, a child born this way does not inherit the genes of its mother.

Bibliography

Bayer K., Sheinberg L. Healthy lifestyle. M., 1997

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://bio.freehostia.com were used.

An important factor in planning future offspring is not only the health of the woman, but also the proper functioning of the systems of the male body. The male reproductive system is a collection of organs responsible for procreation (reproduction).

Such a system is responsible for the following functions:

1. Production and transportation of male germ cells (spermatozoa).
2. Delivery of spermatozoa into the female reproductive system (during sexual intercourse).
3. The production of hormones responsible for the proper functioning of the male reproductive system.

The physiology of the male reproductive system is closely related to the body's urinary system.

Consider the structure and functions of the male reproductive organs (with photo).

Modern anatomy gives a complete picture of the physiology of the structure of the human reproductive system. There are many video and photographic materials, many articles and medical manuals have been written that consider the functions and structure of the reproductive system.

Male puberty occurs not much later than puberty in women, and does not have such a clearly defined indicator as female menstruation. Men reach full puberty, as a rule, by the age of 18, although full-fledged spermatozoa are produced by 13-14 years. Unlike the female body, male germ cells (gametes) continue to be produced throughout the entire period of life after the onset of puberty. Of course, it should be noted that spermatogenesis in older men is less intense, the number and activity of produced cells may decrease. However, their ability to fertilize remains.

The reproductive system of a man consists of two types of organs of the reproductive system: external and internal.

• Outdoor:

1. Scrotum.
2. Penis (penis).

• Internal:

1. The prostate gland (prostate).
2. seminal vesicles.
3. Testicles and their appendages.
4. Seminal ducts.

Consider the structure of the male reproductive organs in more detail.

The musculoskeletal sac, inside which the testicles with appendages and the duct responsible for ejaculation, are located, is called the scrotum. The anatomy of the structure of the scrotum is quite simple: it is divided by a partition into two chambers, each of which contains one of the two gonads. Main functions - testicular protection and maintenance optimal temperature for the process of formation and development of spermatozoa (spermatogenesis). According to its structure, the scrotum consists of several layers, including skin, as well as muscle tissue that raises or lowers the testicles under certain influences (changes in ambient temperature, physiological processes - arousal, ejaculation).

The penis is the main organ responsible for urination and the delivery of seminal fluid to a woman's body. The anatomy and physiology of the penis distinguishes three main sections of the structure: the head, the base, the body itself. In the upper part there are two so-called cavernous bodies. They are parallel to each other and run from the base to the head of the penis. Under the cavernous bodies is a spongy body, it is located urethra. All of them are covered with a dense membrane containing chambers (lacunae) that fill with blood during sexual arousal. It is the gaps that contribute to the appearance of an erection. The function of the outer protection of the bodies is performed by the skin, which is sufficiently elastic and capable of stretching. The endings of the spongy and cave bodies are located in the head of the penis, covered with thin skin with many nerve endings.

The external genital organs, representing the male reproductive system, continue to grow only during maturation.

The testicles (testicles) are the most important paired organs that affect the process of sperm formation. The growth of the testicles proceeds rather slowly and accelerates only during puberty. Each of the paired organs in its structure is divided into seminal lobules, in which the seminiferous tubules are located, which take part in spermatogenesis. These tubules make up about 70 percent of their volume. Passing through the membrane, the tubules enter the epididymis, in which the ability of spermatozoa to fertilize is finally formed.

The epididymis is a narrow duct adjacent to the testicle and is responsible for the final maturation of spermatozoa, their accumulation and promotion through the genital tract. The process of spermatogenesis is carried out in this part of the male reproductive system. The length of the duct itself is about 8 m, and the movement of spermatozoa to the place of their accumulation takes about 14 days. The anatomy of the appendage consists of three main sections: tail, body and head. The head is divided into lobules, which flow into the epididymal duct and pass into the vas deferens.

The prostate gland is located in close proximity to the bladder and is palpable only through the rectum. The dimensions of the gland of a healthy man are set within certain limits: width from 3 to 5 cm, length from 2 to 4 cm, thickness from 1.5 to 2.5 cm. and prescribing the right treatment. The gland is divided into two lobes, connected by an isthmus. Through it pass the urethra, as well as the ejaculatory ducts.

The main function of the prostate gland is the production of testosterone, a hormone that directly affects the process of fertilization of the egg. In addition to the secretory function of the prostate, motor function can be distinguished: muscle tissue is involved in the release of prostate secretion during ejaculation, and is also responsible for urinary retention. Thanks to the secretion produced, the penetration of urethral infections into the upper tract of the male urinary system is blocked. With age, there is an increased risk of developing various prostate diseases that affect its physiology. As a result, the reproductive function of a man decreases.

The seminal vesicles are another paired organ of the male reproductive system, located above the prostate gland, between the walls of the rectum and bladder. The main function of the bubbles is the production of an important active substance (secret), which is part of the seminal fluid. The secret nourishes the spermatozoa, increasing their resistance to the negative effects of the external environment. This is the source of energy for gametes. The ducts of the seminal vesicles join the ducts responsible for ejaculation, and at the end form the ejaculatory duct. Violations of the physiology or diseases of the seminal vesicles can cause problems in conception, as well as complete infertility in men.

Violation of the reproductive system

According to statistics, women are much more likely to undergo preventive examinations and tests to identify problems of the reproductive system. Men, for the most part, prefer to go to doctors only in case of exacerbations of diseases or obvious violations of the physiology of the functioning of the genital organs. At the same time, the reproductive health of men and women is one of the most important indicators of reproduction. During the planning period for pregnancy, couples often experience conception problems caused by the failure of the male genitourinary system.

The main causes of violations:

• Infectious diseases.
• Failure of the prostate gland.
• Colds and inflammation.

Violation of sexual function as a consequence of the disease is quite obvious. However, there are other reasons as well. First of all, it is necessary to say about the wrong lifestyle: taking psychoactive substances that cause a psychedelic effect (for example, hallucinogenic mushrooms), others drugs and alcohol. In addition, congenital anomalies in the structure of organs, manifested anatomically, can become the cause.

Let us dwell on the most common diseases that affect the reproductive system.

First of all, it is worth mentioning such a disease as prostatitis. This is the most common cause of reproductive dysfunction in men. Currently, every fourth man in varying degrees suffers from inflammation of the prostate. As a rule, men aged 40 and older are at risk. However, younger men are also susceptible to the disease. The influence of the work of the gland on the physiology of the reproductive system is very high. In order to improve its functioning, it is necessary to undergo a full examination, according to the results of which treatment will be prescribed. Self-administration of drugs without consulting a doctor can increase the risk of complications.

Another disease that affects the physiology of the reproductive system is vesiculitis. This pathology is characterized by inflammation of the seminal vesicles. There is a high risk of developing this disease in men suffering from chronic prostatitis. The main symptom of the disease: pain during ejaculation, in the perineum and groin, as well as general weakness. With advanced forms, treatment is carried out surgically, when diagnosed in the early stages, treatment with antibacterial drugs is possible.

As a prevention of diseases of the reproductive system, it is necessary to adhere to the basic rules:

1. Quality and varied food.
2. Complex physical activity.
3. Preventive examinations of narrow specialists.
4. Regular sex life.
5. Exclusion of casual sexual relations.

Also, do not forget about the rules of personal hygiene and adherence to sleep and wakefulness. If any symptoms of diseases of the reproductive system (itching, redness, pain, cracks in the skin or swelling) appear, you should immediately consult a doctor for diagnosis and accurate diagnosis. It is important to remember that letting any disease take its course or self-treatment can threaten even greater violations of physiological processes. The advanced stages of some diseases can be cured only by surgical intervention, and some diseases of the reproductive system become chronic and increase the risk of complications such as infertility or impaired potency.

These include the labia majora, labia minora, and clitoris, which together make up the vulva. It is bordered by two folds of skin - the labia majora. They are composed of adipose tissue saturated with blood vessels and are arranged in an anterior-posterior direction. The skin of the labia majora is covered with hair on the outside, and thin shiny skin on the inside, on which numerous gland ducts exit. The labia majora join in front and behind to form anterior and posterior commissures (commissures). Inward from them are the small labia, which are parallel to the large and form the vestibule of the vagina. Outside, they are covered with thin skin, and inside they are lined with a mucous membrane. They are rose-red in color, posteriorly joined in front of the commissure of the large lips, and anteriorly at the level of the clitoris. They are quite richly supplied with sensitive nerve endings and are involved in achieving a voluptuous feeling.

On the eve of the vagina, the ducts of the Bartholin glands located in the thickness of the labia majora open. The secret of the Bartholin glands is intensively secreted at the time of sexual arousal and provides lubrication of the vagina to facilitate friction (periodic translational movements of the penis into the vagina) during intercourse.

In the thickness of the labia majora are the bulbs of the cavernous bodies of the clitoris, which increase during sexual arousal. At the same time, the clitoris itself also increases, which is a peculiar, greatly reduced likeness of the penis. It is located in front and above the entrance to the vagina, at the junction of the labia minora. There are a lot of nerve endings in the clitoris and during sex it is the dominant, and sometimes the only organ, thanks to which a woman experiences an orgasm.

Just below the clitoris is the opening of the urethra, and even lower is the entrance to the vagina. In women who have not lived sexually, it is covered by the hymen, which is a thin fold of mucous membrane. The hymen can have a variety of shapes: in the form of a ring, a crescent, a fringe, etc. As a rule, it breaks during the first sexual intercourse, which may be accompanied by moderate soreness and slight bleeding. In some women, the hymen is very dense and blocks the penis from entering the vagina. In such cases, sexual intercourse becomes impossible and you have to resort to the help of a gynecologist who dissects it. In other cases, the hymen is so elastic and pliable that it does not break during the first intercourse.

Sometimes with rough intercourse, especially in combination with a large penis, the rupture of the hymen can be accompanied by quite severe bleeding, such that the help of a gynecologist is sometimes necessary.

It is extremely rare for a hymen to have no opening at all. During puberty, when a girl begins her period, menstrual blood accumulates in the vagina. Gradually, the vagina overflows with blood and squeezes the urethra, making it impossible to urinate. In these cases, the help of a gynecologist is also needed.

The area located between the posterior commissure of the labia majora and the anus is called the perineum. The perineum consists of muscles, fascia, blood vessels, and nerves. During childbirth, the perineum plays a very important role: due to its extensibility, on the one hand, and elasticity, on the other, it passes the fetal head, providing an increase in the diameter of the vagina. However, with a very large fetus or with a rapid delivery, the perineum cannot withstand excessive stretching and may rupture. Experienced midwives know how to prevent this situation. If all the techniques for protecting the perineum are ineffective, then they resort to a perineal incision (episiotomy or perineotomy), since an incised wound heals better and faster than a lacerated one.

Internal female reproductive organs

These include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes. All these organs are located in the small pelvis - a bone "shell" formed by the inner surfaces of the ilium, ischial, pubic bones and sacrum. This is necessary to protect both the woman's reproductive system and the fetus developing in the uterus.

The uterus is a muscular organ, consisting of smooth muscles, resembling a pear in shape. The size of the uterus is on average 7-8 cm long and about 5 cm wide. Despite its small size, during pregnancy, the uterus can increase 7 times. Inside the uterus is hollow. The thickness of the walls, as a rule, is about 3 cm. The body of the uterus - its widest part, is turned upward, and the narrower one - the neck - is directed downward and slightly forward (normal), falling into the vagina and dividing its posterior wall into the posterior and anterior vaults. In front of the uterus is the bladder, and behind is the rectum.

The cervix has an opening (cervical canal) that connects the vaginal cavity with the uterine cavity.

The fallopian tubes extending from the lateral surfaces of the bottom of the uterus on both sides are a paired organ 10-12 cm long. Departments of the fallopian tube: the uterine part, isthmus and ampulla of the fallopian tube. The end of the pipe is called a funnel, from the edges of which numerous processes of various shapes and lengths (fringes) extend. Outside, the tube is covered with a connective tissue membrane, under it is a muscular membrane; inner layer- mucous membrane lined with ciliated epithelium.

The ovaries are a paired organ, the gonad. Oval body: length up to 2.5 cm, width 1.5 cm, thickness about 1 cm. One of its poles is connected to the uterus by its own ligament, the second is facing the side wall of the pelvis. The free edge is open into the abdominal cavity, the opposite edge is attached to the broad ligament of the uterus. It has medulla and cortical layers. In the brain - vessels and nerves are concentrated, in the cortex - follicles mature.

The vagina is an extensible muscular-fibrous tube about 10 cm long. The upper edge of the vagina covers the cervix, and the lower one opens on the eve of the vagina. The cervix protrudes into the vagina, a domed space is formed around the cervix - the anterior and posterior vaults. The wall of the vagina consists of three layers: the outer one is dense connective tissue, the middle one is thin muscle fibers, and the inner one is the mucous membrane. Some of the epithelial cells synthesize and store glycogen stores. Normally, the vagina is dominated by Doderlein sticks, which process the glycogen of dying cells, forming lactic acid. This leads to the maintenance of an acidic environment in the vagina (pH = 4), which has a detrimental effect on other (non-acidophilic) bacteria. Additional protection Numerous neutrophils and leukocytes residing in the vaginal epithelium carry out the infection.

The mammary glands are composed of glandular tissue: each of them contains approximately 20 separate tubuloalveolar glands, each of which has its own outlet on the nipple. In front of the nipple, each duct has an extension (ampulla or sinus) that is surrounded by smooth muscle fibers. There are contractile cells in the walls of the ducts, which reflexively contract in response to sucking, expelling the milk contained in the ducts. The skin around the nipple is called the areola, it contains many mammary-type glands, as well as sebaceous glands, which produce an oily fluid that lubricates and protects the nipple during sucking.

The human reproductive system is a functional self-regulating system that flexibly adapts to changes in the state of the external environment and the body itself.

In physiology, the principle of homeostasis, formulated by Claude Bernard, is generally accepted. According to this principle, any of the indicators of metabolism must be within certain and narrow enough limits to remain compatible with life. Examples are the constants of the acid-base state of the body and the gas composition of the blood, the function of the endocrine glands and glucose metabolism, etc.

However, when studying the functioning of the female reproductive system, one should always remember that it is characterized by constant variability, cyclical processes, and its balance is unusually mobile. Moreover, in a woman's body, not only the state of the organs of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis and target organs changes cyclically, but also the function of the endocrine glands, autonomic regulation, water-salt metabolism, etc. In general, almost all organ systems of a woman undergo more or less profound changes due to the menstrual cycle. "Warium et mutabile semper femina" ("A woman is always a fickle and changeable being") - this aphorism of Virgil can serve as a reminder to doctors and an epigraph to a large number of clinical studies.

In the process of evolutionary development, two types (from the point of view of the mechanism of ovulation) of the ovarian cycle of mammals have been formed. In reflex ovulating animals, after the reproductive system is ready for ovulation, follicle rupture occurs in response to mating. The nervous system plays a major role in this process. In spontaneously ovulating animals, ovulation occurs regardless of sexual activity, and the time of release of the egg is determined by sequential processes in the reproductive system. The most important in this case are the hormonal mechanisms of regulation with less involvement of the central nervous system(CNS). Spontaneous ovulation is characteristic of primates and humans.

An important role in the regulation of the reproductive system is also played by organs that are not directly related to the five described hierarchical levels, primarily the endocrine glands. Undoubtedly the importance of the epiphysis, adrenal glands and thyroid gland. It is believed that the main role of the pineal gland is participation in the formation of the biological rhythms of the body. Its tissue produces melatonin, serotonin, norepinephrine and other substances that affect the neurons of the arcuate oscillator. The role of the pineal gland in reproduction must be further clarified. The adrenal glands, thyroid gland and gonads have not only common pathways for the metabolism of the hormones they produce, but also common central regulatory mechanisms. In any case, the pathology of these glands plays an important role in the formation of disorders of puberty, the menstrual cycle and reproductive function.

Podzolkova H.M., Glazkova O.L.

"The human reproductive system" and others

PHYSIOLOGY OF A WOMAN. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The human body is a complex of physiological systems (nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, excretory, etc.). The normal operation of these systems ensures the existence of a person as an individual. Violation of any of them leads to disorders, often incompatible with life. But there is a system that does not participate in life support processes, but its significance is extremely high - it ensures the continuation of the human race. This is the reproductive system. If all other vital systems function from the moment of birth to death, then the reproductive one “works” only when the woman’s body can carry, give birth and feed a child, that is, in a certain age period, in the flowering phase of all vital forces. This is the highest biological expediency. Genetically, this period is programmed for the age of 18-45 years.

The reproductive system of a woman has a complex structure due to the complexity of its function. It includes higher regulatory mechanisms located at the base of the brain, closely connected by nerve and vascular pathways with an appendage of the brain - the pituitary gland. In it, under the influence of impulses emanating from the brain, specific substances are formed - pituitary hormones. Through the bloodstream, these hormones reach the female sex gland - the ovary, in which the female sex hormones - estrogens and progesterone are formed. Pituitary hormones play a decisive role in the development and formation of not only the genital organs, but the entire female body. The genital organs include both external and internal genital organs (vagina, cervix, tubes and ovaries).

Female reproductive organs:

1 - vaginal mucosa; 2 - cervix; 3 - fallopian tube; 4 - the bottom of the uterus; 5 - the body of the uterus; 6 - corpus luteum; 7 - funnel of the oviduct; 8 - fringe of the oviduct; 9 - ovary; 10 - uterine cavity

The ovary is a unique endocrine gland. In addition to the fact that it functions like any endocrine gland, releasing hormones, female germ cells - eggs - mature in it.

The ovary contains about 7,000,000 eggs at the time of birth. Theoretically, each of them after fertilization can give rise to a new life. However, with age, their number progressively decreases: by the age of 20 it is 600,000, by the age of 40 - about 40,000, at the age of 50 there are only a few thousand, after 60 years they cannot be detected. Such an excess supply of eggs preserves the possibility of childbearing even after the removal of one and a significant part of the other ovary.

Each egg is housed in a sac called a follicle. Its walls are made up of cells that produce sex hormones. As the egg matures, the follicle grows, and the production of estrogen increases in it. A mature egg is ejected from the ovary, and the so-called corpus luteum is formed in place of the follicle, which also secretes the hormone progesterone. This hormone has a multifaceted biological effect, which will be discussed below.

The uterus is a hollow muscular organ. The muscles of the uterus, which have a special structure, have the property of increasing in size and mass. Thus, the uterus of an adult non-pregnant woman weighs about 50 g; by the end of pregnancy, its mass increases to 1200 g and accommodates a fetus weighing more than 3 kg. The inner surface of the uterus is covered with a monthly falling off and re-growing membrane. From the upper part of the uterus, its bottom, the fallopian tubes (oviducts) depart, consisting of a thin layer of muscles, lined inside with a mucous membrane, which is covered with cilia. Wave-like movements of the tubes and vibrations of the cilia push the fertilized egg into the uterine cavity.

So, the reproductive system of a woman consists of higher regulatory brain centers, endocrine glands (pituitary and ovaries), internal and external genital organs. Like all body systems, the reproductive system is laid down and begins to develop during fetal development. After birth, it functions differently depending on the age of the woman. The following periods of functioning of the reproductive system are distinguished: childhood, puberty, reproductive (childbearing) period, menopause and postmenopause.

The period of childhood (from the moment of birth to 10 years) is also called the period of sexual rest, since the system practically does not function at this time. However, studies have shown that even then negligible amounts of sex hormones are formed in the ovary, which play a certain role in the overall metabolism of the body. At this age, there is a gradual slight increase in the size of the internal and external genital organs in accordance with the overall growth of the body.

The period of puberty is characterized by significant changes in the entire body of the girl, which are the result of the action of female sex hormones. From the age of 10, an increase in the secretion of sex hormones in the ovary begins. Signals for their formation and release come from certain brain structures, which reach a certain degree of maturity by this age. The first sign of the action of sex hormones is a growth spurt. Every mother knows that after a period of gradual growth at the age of 10-12 years, the girl immediately adds 8-10 cm, body weight increases, the formation of a female body type begins: the distribution of adipose tissue is predominantly deposited on the hips, buttocks, abdomen. The development of secondary sexual characteristics is noted: the mammary glands increase, their growth begins with darkening and enlargement of the nipples. At 11 years of age, hair growth of the external genitalia appears, at 13 years of age - axillary hair growth. At the age of about 13 years (with deviations of several months) menstruation begins, the first menstruation is called menarche. During this time, the internal and external genital organs increase in size. The appearance of menstruation does not mean the end of the period of sexual development - its first stage is over. The second stage lasts up to 16 (18) years and ends with the cessation of growth in length, i.e. with the formation of the skeleton. The last to stop the growth of the pelvic bone, since the bone pelvis is the basis of the so-called birth canal, through which the child is born. The growth of the body in length ends 2-2.5 years after the first menstruation, and the growth of the pelvic bones by 18 years. In the second stage of puberty, the development of the mammary glands, sexual and axillary hair growth is completed, the internal genital organs reach their final dimensions.

These changes occur under the influence of sex hormones. Many tissues of the body are the target of the action of sex hormones, they are called so - target tissues of sex hormones. These include primarily the genitals, mammary glands, as well as adipose, muscle tissue, bones, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and skin. Even the blood is affected by ovarian hormones, changing its coagulation ability. Hormones affect the central nervous system (the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex), the behavior and mental activity of a woman, which distinguish her from a man, largely depend on them. During the second stage of puberty, the cyclic function of the entire reproductive system is formed: the frequency of nerve signals and the release of pituitary hormones, as well as the cyclic function of the ovaries. Within a certain time, the maturation and release of the egg, the production and release of sex hormones into the blood occur.

It is known that the human body obeys certain biological rhythms - hourly, daily, seasonal. The ovaries also have a certain rhythm of work: within 2 weeks, an egg matures in the follicle and is ejected from the ovaries; over the next 2 weeks, a corpus luteum forms in its place. It flourishes and undergoes reverse development. During the same time, the uterine cycle occurs in the uterus: under the influence of estrogens, the mucous membrane grows within 2 weeks, then, under the influence of progesterone, changes occur in it that prepare it for the perception of the egg in the event of its fertilization. Glands filled with mucus are formed in it, it loosens. If pregnancy does not occur, the uterine mucosa is shed, the underlying vessels are exposed, and the so-called menstrual bleeding occurs within 3-5 days. This ovarian and uterine cycle in 75% of women lasts 28 days: in 15% - 21 days, in 10% - 32 days and is stable. It does not change during the entire period of the functioning of the reproductive system, stopping only during pregnancy. Only serious illnesses, stresses, abrupt changes in living conditions can break it.

The reproductive (childbearing) period lasts from 18 to 45 years. This is the heyday of the whole organism, the time of its greatest physical and intellectual activity, when the body of a healthy woman easily copes with the load (pregnancy and childbirth).

Menopause occurs at the age of 45-55 years. Climax in Greek means "ladder". At this age, the function of the reproductive system gradually fades: menstruation becomes poorer, the interval between them lengthens, the process of follicle growth and maturation of the egg is disrupted, ovulation does not occur, and the corpus luteum does not form. Pregnancy is impossible. After the cessation of childbearing, the hormonal function of the ovaries also fades, and the formation and secretion of the hormone progesterone (yellow body hormone) are the first to be disrupted, with still sufficient formation and secretion of estrogens. Then the formation of estrogens also decreases.

Speaking about the period of puberty, we noted that the signal for the beginning of the secretion of ovarian hormones comes from certain structures of the brain. In the same structures, aging processes begin, leading to a violation of the cycle and a decrease in the hormone-forming function of the ovaries. However, during the menopause, sex hormones are formed in the ovaries, however, in an ever-decreasing amount, insufficient for the normal functioning of the whole organism. The culmination of menopause is the last menstrual period, which is called menopause. It occurs on average at the age of 50, sometimes menstruation continues until the age of 55 (late menopause).

The postmenopausal period is divided into early postmenopause (the first 6 years after menopause) and late postmenopause (terms are defined differently). At this age, the hormonal function of the ovaries ceases, and the ovary practically does not secrete sex hormones. Many manifestations of the aging process of the body are due precisely to the deficiency of sex hormones. First of all, these are atrophic (reduction in size) changes in the genital organs - both external and internal. Atrophic changes also occur in the mammary glands, the glandular tissue of which is replaced by fatty tissue. The skin loses elasticity, becomes wrinkled, thinner. There are changes in the bone tissue - the bones become more fragile, much more often than in youth, fractures occur and heal more slowly. Perhaps there is no such process of aging of a woman in which the deficiency of sex hormones would not participate, if not directly, then indirectly, through metabolism. However, it would be wrong to assume that aging is associated only with a decrease in the level of sex hormones in the body. Aging is an inevitable, genetically programmed process that begins in the brain, in the centers that regulate the function of all organs and systems of the body.

Each age period in a woman's life is characterized by specific disorders and diseases of the reproductive system. So, in childhood, gynecological diseases are rare. Almost the only disease in girls under 8-10 years old is inflammation of the vagina and external genitalia. The cause of inflammation is banal microorganisms (streptococci and staphylococci), always present on the mucous membranes, including the vagina. But in weakened children, after suffering infectious diseases (measles, scarlet fever, tonsillitis, influenza, pneumonia), especially if hygiene rules are not observed (daily washing), these microorganisms multiply and acquire aggressive properties, causing inflammatory changes. Purulent discharge, redness, and sometimes itching appear. These diseases do not require special therapeutic measures. It is recommended to carefully observe the cleanliness of the body, washing with light disinfectant solutions (low-pink solution of potassium permanganate or a solution of calendula tincture diluted in boiled water 1:100) and general measures aimed at the rapid restoration of health after illnesses (good nutrition, physical education, hardening) .

During puberty, menstrual irregularities are often observed. It must be remembered that after the first menstruation, approximately 10-15% of girls have regular menstruation within 1 - 1.5 years. If during this period menstruation comes irregularly at intervals of up to 40-60 days, then you should not worry. If, after this period, the cycle is not established, we can talk about a deviation from the norm and look for its cause. Sometimes this is due to intense sports, irregular meals. Many girls during puberty follow a "cosmetic diet". Afraid of getting fat, they deliberately limit themselves to the proteins, fats and carbohydrates necessary for a growing body (for example, they do not eat bread, butter, meat). Weight loss at this age tends to disrupt the menstrual cycle up to and including the cessation of menstruation if it occurs within a short period of time. It is possible to restore the menstrual cycle with the help of rational nutrition and normalization of body weight. Drugs that stimulate ovarian function are used only for long-term (more than a year) delays in menstruation. Serious juvenile uterine bleeding. They require hospital treatment, and after discharge, long-term medical supervision and treatment to normalize ovarian function. At the same time, uterine bleeding at this age may be a symptom of non-gynecological diseases (for example, a violation of the blood coagulation system). Bleeding during puberty requires careful examination to establish their true cause.

The pathology that requires examination is the late (after 16 years) onset of menstruation, the appearance of excessive hair growth unusual for the female type, the absence of menstruation, especially against the background of severe underdevelopment of secondary sexual characteristics (for example, mammary glands). Delayed puberty, as a rule, is a sign of endocrine diseases, and sometimes congenital, genetically determined malformations of the reproductive system. Postponing the examination of such girls for a period after 16 years should not be. Timely identification of the causes of developmental disorders will allow them to be corrected in a timely manner. This is important not only for the normalization of the functions of the reproductive system, but also relieves the girl of the consciousness of her inferiority, to which adolescents are especially sensitive at this age. Normal puberty is the key to the further function of the reproductive system. It is at this age that ovarian disorders are formed, which later lead to infertility, as well as miscarriage, disorders during pregnancy and childbirth.

PREGNANCY AND BIRTH

The main events in a woman's life during the childbearing period are pregnancy and childbirth. Pregnancy occurs after the fusion of female and male germ cells (egg and sperm). The process of fusion, or fertilization, occurs, as a rule, in the fallopian tubes, where the egg that is released from the ovary during ovulation enters, and the sperm enters from the vagina through the cervix and its cavity.

During fertilization, the transfer of hereditary, or genetic, information to offspring occurs. It is stored in chromosomes, special protein structures of eggs and sperm. All cells of the human body, including sex cells, contain 23 pairs of chromosomes; The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes, they are denoted by the letters of the Latin alphabet V and X. Women have two X chromosomes, and men have XV chromosomes. In the process of maturation of eggs and sperm cells, they divide, and each of the dividing cells gets half of the chromosome set 23 + X or 23 + V. If an egg containing the X chromosome is fertilized, a sperm cell containing the V chromosome develops a male fetus. If the fertilizing sperm contains the X chromosome, then a female fetus develops. The process of maturation and division of germ cells proceeds normally in a young healthy organism. With age, this process can be disrupted and, during fertilization, an inferior set of chromosomes is formed in the egg. Since the chromosomes are the carrier of the body's development program, there is a failure in the development of the fetus, congenital malformations occur. With violations in the set of sex chromosomes, the normal development of the genital organs of the female or male type is impossible. So there are malformations of sexual development, called hermaphroditism (bisexuality), other malformations of the ovaries and male gonads. According to medical genetics, dealing with congenital chromosomal developmental disorders and diseases, in women over 35 years of age, the frequency of malformations of newborns increases dramatically. At the age of a woman in labor 35-39 years, malformations occur in 1 newborn in 60 married couples, at the age of 40-44 years - in 1 in 40 married couples.

A day after fertilization, the development of a fertilized egg begins, over the next days it moves along the fallopian tube into the uterine cavity, where on the 5-6th day it sinks into the wall of the uterus - this process is called implantation. From this moment, intrauterine development begins, lasting 40 weeks (10 lunar, or 9 calendar months). Up to 8 weeks, the developing organism is called the embryo (embryo); from 8 weeks to birth - the fetus. During embryonic development (the first 8 weeks), all the organs of the fetus and the child's place (afterbirth) are laid. During this period, the embryo is very easily exposed to various harmful influences. Since the external environment for him is the mother's body, all adverse effects on her body can lead to impaired fetal development. During this period of pregnancy, the mother’s diseases, her taking medications, smoking, especially alcohol are dangerous for the fetus. After 8 weeks, the growth and development of the organs and systems of the fetus continues. During this period, harmful factors can also have adverse effects on the fetus, but they do not cause severe malformations.

Let's trace the course of intrauterine development by months. At the end of the 1st month, the size of the embryo is 3-4 mm, the neural tube is laid, from which the brain and spinal cord subsequently develop, the heart and large vessels are laid, and heart contractions begin; in the same period, the laying of the sex gland occurs. The pulsation of the heart of the fetus can be caught using ultrasound, which is the basis for early ultrasound diagnosis of pregnancy. At the end of the 2nd month, the length of the embryo is about 30 mm; rudiments of limbs, eyes, nose, mouth appear; the sex glands acquire a distinct structure of the ovaries or testicles; internal reproductive organs begin to develop. At the end of the 3rd month, the length of the fetus is 75 mm; the cardiovascular system is already formed, as is the excretory system; the liver produces bile; the digestive organs develop; the formation of the external genital organs begins, but it is still impossible to determine the sex of the fetus from them. At the end of the 4th month, the length of the fetus is 12-14 cm; all the most important organs and systems are formed; you can determine the sex by the structure of the external genital organs; the fetus makes movements, but the mother does not yet feel them.

In obstetric practice, an embryo (embryo) is called a developing organism during the first two months of intrauterine life, and from 3 to 9 months - a fetus (foetus), therefore this period of development is called fetal, or fetal.

Development of the reproductive system. The testis is like a male gonad. Shells of the vas deferens: mucous, muscular, external. Composition of the hematotesticular barrier. Histophysiology of seminal vesicles. Ovogenesis as the process of formation of female germ cells.

The structure of the human reproductive system and its importance in the life of the organism and its reproduction. Distinctive features of the genital organs of men and women. The structure of the ovaries and the stages of the ovulation process. Participation of the ovaries in hormonal regulation.

New life originates at the moment of conception, i.e. when the sperm and egg merge into a single whole. Their fusion occurs in the body of a woman as a result of sexual intercourse between future parents.

All methods of family planning, whether they are aimed at preventing pregnancy or ensuring its onset, are based on the knowledge we have about the body's ability to conceive (fertility). Natural methods are based on knowledge of physiological signs, allowing a married couple to determine the period when they should refrain from sexual intercourse if they want to avoid pregnancy, or have sexual intercourse if pregnancy is desired. For the successful application of this method, it is necessary to have a good understanding of how the process of reproduction proceeds in humans and what are the signs of fertility in women.

Reproduction in humans

The process of reproduction begins with the fertilization of an egg by a sperm. After the egg is fertilized, it attaches itself to the uterine cavity and begins to develop.

Physiology of reproduction in men

After reaching puberty, the testicles of a man begin to produce sperm, and this process continues throughout life. During sexual intercourse, the spermatozoa in the seminal fluid enter the female genital tract from the penis. In most cases, the sperm cell remains viable for 24 to 120 hours. Millions of sperm cells are erupted at the same time, but in order for any of them to reach the egg and fertilization occurs, a number of conditions are needed. It matters whether the spermatozoa are able to pass the woman's genital tract to the egg, whether the liquid environment in them is favorable enough, how fast the spermatozoa move, etc.

Physiology of reproduction in women

Ability female body to produce an egg and the possibility of pregnancy cyclically change every day. The first day of the cycle is considered the first day of menstruation.

At the beginning of each cycle, small formations called follicles mature in a woman's ovaries. Follicles produce the female sex hormone estrogen. Under the influence of accumulated estrogen in the body, the glands located in the cervix (the lower part of the uterus descending into the vagina) secrete a liquid, viscous mucous lubricant, which is sometimes called fertile mucus, and the presence of which a woman usually feels on the genitals a few days before ovulation. When estrogen levels peak, one or sometimes several follicles rupture, releasing an egg. The period of life of the egg is very small - usually about 12 hours, rarely - more than a day. The egg passes into one of the fallopian tubes and enters the uterus. If at the time of passage of the egg through the fallopian tube, there are healthy spermatozoa in the latter, one of them can fertilize the egg. Under the influence of increased levels of estrogen at the stage of ovulation, the cervix becomes softer, takes a higher position in the vagina, moisturizes and opens. Women at this time have pain in the lower abdomen and sometimes have discharge or bleeding (called ovulatory or intermenstrual bleeding). If the egg is fertilized, it continues its way to the uterus and attaches to the wall of its cavity.

After ovulation, the follicle that released the egg turns into a corpus luteum, releasing estrogen and progesterone. Once fertilization has occurred, these two hormones hold in place the endometrium lining the uterine cavity, in which the fertilized egg is implanted. Under the influence of progesterone, cervical mucus from wet lubricant turns into a thick and sticky medium, a woman may experience a feeling of dryness in the vulva area. Increasing progesterone levels require an increase basal body temperature body (body temperature at rest) by at least 0.2 °C. If the egg is not fertilized, it disintegrates, and estrogen and progesterone levels remain high for 10-16 days, after which they begin to decline. A decrease in the content of hormones in the blood leads to rejection of the lining of the uterus, and menstruation occurs. The first day of menstruation is the first day of a new menstrual cycle. As a rule, a woman's cycle lasts about 28-30 days, although in some cases it can be longer or shorter.

Thus, in the menstrual cycle of a woman, three phases are distinguished: 1) a relatively infertile (early infertile) phase, which begins simultaneously with menstruation; 2) the fertile phase, including the day of ovulation and those days immediately before and after ovulation, during which sexual intercourse can lead to pregnancy; 3) postovulatory (late) infertile phase, which begins after the end of the fertile phase and lasts until the onset of menstruation.

The male reproductive system is represented by the testicles (testicles), seminal vesicles, prostate gland, vas deferens and penis (Fig.).

Reproduction(from Latin re - a prefix indicating a repeated action, rgoduso - I produce) - reproduction of one's own kind is the most important property of all living things. Most multicellular organisms have sexual reproduction, which involves male and female germ cells. Sex cells are produced in the glands of the reproductive organs. In addition to them, sex hormones are formed in these glands. They ensure the normal course of pregnancy, growth and development of the fetus.

Fertilization in humans, internal, occurs in the genital tract of a woman. At the time of fertilization, the male reproductive cell merges with the female and a single-celled organism is formed - a zygote (from the Greek zygotos - paired). The zygote contains the genetic information of both parents. Intrauterine development of a new organism lasts 10 lunar months (280 days) and ends with its birth.

Sex cells - spermatozoa- formed in the testicles. The testicles lie outside the pelvis, in the skin-muscle formation - the scrotum. The position of the testicles outside the body cavity provides optimal temperature regime for the maturation of spermatozoa (about +35 ° C). The prostate gland and seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid, mixing with which spermatozoa acquire mobility.

In addition to spermatozoa, androgen hormones are produced in the gonads (this was already mentioned on page 50), which have a stimulating effect on the growth of the genital organs, the development of secondary sexual characteristics, the maturation of spermatozoa, and sexual behavior.

Sperm formation begins at puberty. A mature sperm cell consists of a head, middle part and tail. The tail of the spermatozoon provides its movement.

Prostate gland and seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid nutrient medium for spermatozoa. In seminal fluid, spermatozoa acquire the mobility necessary to move to the egg.

During intercourse, spermatozoa are sent through the vas deferens to the urethra, from where they enter the female genital tract.

female reproductive system represented by the ovaries, fallopian tubes (oviducts), uterus and vagina (Fig.). The vagina is covered by small and large labia, between which is the clitoris. These are the external genital organs of the female body.

ovaries- paired sex glands located in the pelvic cavity. In them, the maturation of eggs occurs and the hormones already known to you, estrogens, are formed. They stimulate the development and function of the female genital organs, the normal growth of the mammary glands. They affect bone growth, determining the physique of women, water-salt metabolism, etc. Estrogens, like androgens, are produced by the adrenal cortex.

This is interesting. When a girl is born, her ovaries contain up to 2 million egg precursor cells. In the process of development, most of them die, and by the time of puberty, there are only 400 - 500 future eggs in the ovary. Such is the reproductive fund of the female body.

After the onset of puberty in special formations (follicles) inside the ovary, 1 (rarely 2) egg cell matures monthly. The follicle protrudes from the surface of the ovary and bursts (Fig.). An egg is released from it, which enters the abdominal cavity. This process is called ovulation.

In place of the bursting follicle, a corpus luteum develops - a temporary endocrine gland. It produces the hormone progesterone, which prepares the lining of the uterus to receive the fetus. If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum of the ovary resolves.

The egg is much larger than the sperm. It contains reserves of nutrients and compounds that regulate the stages of embryonic development. Unlike sperm, the egg is not capable of independent movement.

From the ovary, the egg enters the abdominal cavity, and from there through the fringed funnel into the fallopian tube. The inner surface of the fallopian tube is lined with a special type of epithelium. It has cilia, the vibrations of which, together with contractions of the muscular wall of the tube, contribute to the advancement of the egg.

The lifespan of a spermatozoon reaches 3 days, while the egg cell retains the ability to fertilize for only 24 hours. For fertilization to occur, it must meet with the spermatozoon precisely during this period of time.

In the fallopian tube, only one out of 300,000-500,000 sperm enters the egg and fertilizes it. From the moment of the fusion of their nuclei, the egg becomes a zygote.

This is interesting. The sex of the child depends on which of the father's sex chromosomes, X or Y, the future organism inherits (all eggs have only the X chromosome). If there are two X chromosomes in the zygote, a girl will be born, if XY is a boy.

From the oviduct, the zygote enters the uterus. The uterus is a hollow muscular organ in which the fetus develops. It is lined with a mucous membrane rich in blood vessels. The uterus ends with a cervix that opens into the vagina.

If fertilization does not take place, the egg dies. The uterine mucosa, which has grown and is ready to receive a fertilized egg, is shed, its blood vessels rupture, and blood, along with particles of the mucous membrane, is released through the vagina - menstruation begins (from Latin mens - a month). It is repeated in girls and women on average after 28 days, that is, every lunar month. In the case of fertilization of the egg and the attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus, the next menstruation does not occur.

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